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Sources & Evidence

Built on public data sources

Every Health Worth estimate is grounded in peer-reviewed research, federal datasets, and standards-setting bodies. Browse the full bibliography below - grouped by what each source contributes to the model.

Pricing data

Clinical outcomes

  • PubMed (NCBI E-utilities API)

    National Library of Medicine, NIH

    Used for: Recent peer-reviewed citations per procedure, refreshed quarterly and shown as Related Research (titles and links only)

  • HCUP Nationwide Inpatient Sample

    Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ)

    Used for: Complication rates, readmission rates, and inpatient outcomes

  • USPSTF Recommendation Statements

    U.S. Preventive Services Task Force

    Used for: Evidence-graded benefits and harms of preventive care

  • CDC WONDER

    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

    Used for: Disease incidence, prevalence, and mortality baselines

  • Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

    Cochrane Collaboration

    Used for: Pooled effect sizes for treatment vs. delay decisions

  • Global Burden of Disease Study

    Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME)

    Used for: Disability-adjusted life year (DALY) and risk-factor estimates

Quality-of-life (QALY) weights

Labor & productivity

Procedure-specific research

Peer-reviewed studies grouped by the screening or procedure they inform - covering long-term outcomes, complications, quality of life, productivity, and cost-effectiveness.

Knee Replacement

30 studies · Chronic

Related research

Foundational, most-cited evidence for this procedure - systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and clinical practice guidelines.

  • Effectiveness of total knee arthroplasty rehabilitation programmes: A systematic review and meta-analysis

    Pools many rehab studies to look at how much structured physical therapy after a knee replacement helps people move and recover.

    Researchers gathered the published trials of rehabilitation programs used after a total knee replacement and compared them side by side. Structured, supervised rehab was generally linked to better movement, strength, and day-to-day function than minimal or unsupervised recovery, though the programs studied varied widely in length and intensity. The authors note that the quality of the underlying studies limits how firm the conclusions can be.

    Journal of rehabilitation medicine · 2021

  • Robotic-assisted versus conventional total knee arthroplasty: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

    Combines randomized trials comparing robot-assisted knee replacement with the standard approach, looking at accuracy and patient results.

    This review pulled together randomized trials that compared robot-assisted knee replacement with the standard manual technique. Robot assistance tended to place the implant more precisely, but differences in how patients felt and functioned afterward were small. Surgery took longer with the robot in most trials.

    European journal of orthopaedic surgery & traumatology : orthopedie traumatologie · 2024

  • Comparison of robotic-assisted total knee arthroplasty: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis

    An updated round-up of the same robot-assisted versus standard knee replacement question, adding more recent studies.

    An updated version of the same comparison, adding trials published more recently. The pattern held: better alignment accuracy with robotic assistance, with short-term patient-reported results largely similar between the two approaches. Longer follow-up is still needed to know whether the implants last longer.

    Journal of robotic surgery · 2024

Source: PubMed (NCBI E-utilities, National Library of Medicine, NIH) · Retrieved 2026-08-27. Titles and links only - abstracts are not reproduced here.

Screening Colonoscopy

29 studies · Preventive / Screening

Related research

Foundational, most-cited evidence for this procedure - systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and clinical practice guidelines.

  • ACG Clinical Guidelines: Colorectal Cancer Screening 2021

    The gastroenterology society's official advice on who should be screened for colon cancer, when to start, and how often.

    The American College of Gastroenterology reviewed the evidence and set out who should be screened for colorectal cancer and how. It recommends starting screening at age 45 for people at average risk, names colonoscopy and stool-based testing as the primary options, and describes how often each should be repeated.

    The American journal of gastroenterology · 2021

  • Screening for Colorectal Cancer: Updated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force

    The evidence review behind the national screening recommendations - it weighs the benefits and harms of the different colon cancer screening tests.

    This is the evidence review prepared for the national task force. The authors examined the accuracy, benefits, and harms of every major colorectal cancer screening test and how results change with the age screening begins. They found screening reduces deaths from colorectal cancer, with the tests differing in accuracy, frequency, and risk of complications.

    JAMA · 2021

  • Artificial Intelligence-Assisted Colonoscopy for Polyp Detection : A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

    Pools studies on using AI software during a colonoscopy to help doctors spot polyps that might otherwise be missed.

    Researchers combined trials in which AI software watched the video feed during a colonoscopy and flagged possible polyps. The AI-assisted exams found more polyps overall, especially small ones, though it is not yet clear how much that translates into fewer cancers later. False alarms and slightly longer exams were the main downsides.

    Annals of internal medicine · 2024

Source: PubMed (NCBI E-utilities, National Library of Medicine, NIH) · Retrieved 2026-08-27. Titles and links only - abstracts are not reproduced here.

Sleep Apnea Treatment

30 studies · Chronic

Related research

Foundational, most-cited evidence for this procedure - systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and clinical practice guidelines.

Source: PubMed (NCBI E-utilities, National Library of Medicine, NIH) · Retrieved 2026-08-27. Titles and links only - abstracts are not reproduced here.

Gallbladder Removal

30 studies · Acute

Related research

Foundational, most-cited evidence for this procedure - systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and clinical practice guidelines.

Source: PubMed (NCBI E-utilities, National Library of Medicine, NIH) · Retrieved 2026-08-27. Titles and links only - abstracts are not reproduced here.

Mammogram

30 studies · Preventive / Screening

Related research

Foundational, most-cited evidence for this procedure - systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and clinical practice guidelines.

  • Low health literacy and health outcomes: an updated systematic review

    Reviews the research linking difficulty understanding health information with worse use of care and worse health results.

    A systematic review of studies on health literacy - how well people can find, read, and act on health information. People with limited health literacy used preventive services such as screening less often, were hospitalized more, and had poorer health results overall.

    Annals of internal medicine · 2011

  • Global guidelines for breast cancer screening: A systematic review

    Compares breast cancer screening guidelines from around the world to show where they agree and differ on age and frequency.

    Researchers collected breast cancer screening guidelines from countries around the world and compared them. Most recommend regular mammograms for women in middle age, but they differ on the exact starting age, the stopping age, and whether to screen every year or every two years.

    Breast (Edinburgh, Scotland) · 2022

  • Screening for Breast Cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement

    The U.S. task force's official recommendation on what age to start mammograms and how often to repeat them.

    The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force's official recommendation on breast cancer screening. It advises mammograms every other year for women aged 40 to 74 at average risk, and notes where the evidence is thinner - including screening after age 75 and extra imaging for dense breast tissue.

    JAMA · 2024

Source: PubMed (NCBI E-utilities, National Library of Medicine, NIH) · Retrieved 2026-08-27. Titles and links only - abstracts are not reproduced here.

Hernia Repair

30 studies · Acute

Related research

Foundational, most-cited evidence for this procedure - systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and clinical practice guidelines.

  • International guidelines for groin hernia management

    International expert guidance on managing a groin hernia - when to watch and wait, and which repair techniques to use.

    International expert guidance covering the whole course of groin hernia care. It describes when watchful waiting is reasonable for a hernia that causes no symptoms, which repair techniques are preferred, and how surgeon experience and hospital volume affect results.

    Hernia : the journal of hernias and abdominal wall surgery · 2018

  • Transabdominal pre-peritoneal (TAPP) versus totally extraperitoneal (TEP) laparoscopic techniques for inguinal hernia repair

    Compares two common keyhole techniques for repairing a groin hernia on recovery and complications.

    A Cochrane review comparing two keyhole methods of repairing a groin hernia - TAPP and TEP. Recurrence rates and serious complications were broadly similar between the two; the differences showed up in the specific minor complications each technique tends to produce.

    The Cochrane database of systematic reviews · 2024

  • Mesh versus non-mesh for inguinal and femoral hernia repair

    Compares hernia repairs done with a surgical mesh against repairs without mesh, looking at how often the hernia comes back.

    A Cochrane review comparing groin hernia repairs that use a surgical mesh with repairs that do not. Mesh repairs had fewer hernias coming back and quicker return to normal activity, while the two approaches were similar on most complications.

    The Cochrane database of systematic reviews · 2018

Source: PubMed (NCBI E-utilities, National Library of Medicine, NIH) · Retrieved 2026-08-27. Titles and links only - abstracts are not reproduced here.

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